# Days 13, 14, 15: IPv4 Subnetting # Subnetting: Comprehensive Guide (FLSM & VLSM) ## Overview What is Subnetting? Subnetting is the process of dividing a large network into smaller subnetworks (subnets) to make more efficient use of IP address space and improve network organization. Why Subnetting Matters: Problem with Classful Addressing: \- Company needs 5,000 IPs → Assigned entire Class B \- Class B = 65,536 addresses \- Result: 60,000+ addresses wasted! # Solution: CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing) \- Remove class restrictions \- Split large networks into smaller, right-sized subnets \- Much more efficient IP address utilization # --- ## From Classful to CIDR ### The Class System (Old) Class A: 1.0.0.0 - 126.0.0.0 (Prefix: /8) Class B: 128.0.0.0 - 191.255.0.0 (Prefix: /16) Class C: 192.0.0.0 - 223.255.255.0 (Prefix: /24) Class D: 224.0.0.0 - 239.255.255.255 (Multicast) Class E: 240.0.0.0 - 255.255.255.255 (Reserved) # Problem: Organization's network size had to fit exactly into one class (no middle ground) ### CIDR (New, Modern) CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing) introduced in 1993 by the IETF removes the class requirement. Benefit: Any network can be split into smaller subnets of any size needed 10.0.0.0/8 → Can be split into: 10.0.0.0/16 10.0.0.0/24 10.0.0.0/25 10.0.0.0/26 (any prefix length) # --- ## The Math: Calculating Subnets ### Host Bits and Usable Addresses The Formula: Usable Hosts = 2^n - 2 # n = number of HOST BITS (bits to the right of the subnet mask) -2 = subtract network address and broadcast address (reserved) # Example 1: 203.0.113.0/25 /25 means first 25 bits are the NETWORK 32 - 25 = 7 bits remaining for HOSTS # Usable Hosts = 2^7 - 2 = 128 - 2 = 126 hosts # Binary: 203.0.113.0 = 1100 1011 . 0000 0000 . 0111 0001 . 0 | 000 0000 ↑ 25 bits | 7 bits # Example 2: 203.0.113.0/28 /28 means first 28 bits are the NETWORK 32 - 28 = 4 bits remaining for HOSTS # Usable Hosts = 2^4 - 2 = 16 - 2 = 14 hosts # Binary: 203.0.113.0 = 1100 1011 . 0000 0000 . 0111 0001 . 0000 | 0000 ↑ 28 bits | 4 bits # Subnet Mask = 1111 1111 . 1111 1111 . 1111 1111 . 1111 0000 = 255.255.255.240 # ### Subnet Masks and CIDR Relationship Understanding the relationship between prefix length and dotted-decimal subnet mask is critical.
CIDR Subnet Mask Host Bits Usable Hosts Group Size
/24 255.255.255.0 8 254 256
/25 255.255.255.128 7 126 128
/26 255.255.255.192 6 62 64
/27 255.255.255.224 5 30 32
/28 255.255.255.240 4 14 16
/29 255.255.255.248 3 6 8
/30 255.255.255.252 2 2 4
/31 255.255.255.254 1 0 2
/32 255.255.255.255 0 1 1
Reading the Table: - Smaller CIDR number = larger network (more addresses) - Larger CIDR number = smaller network (fewer addresses) - /30 is popular for WAN point-to-point links (2 usable IPs) --- ## Method 1: Subnetting Cheatsheet The cheatsheet method is the fastest way to subnet for the CCNA exam. ### The Magic Cheatsheet Group Size: | 128 | 64 | 32 | 16 | 8 | 4 | 2 | 1 | Subnet Mask: | 128 | 192 | 224 | 240 | 248 | 252 | 254 | 255 | Last Octet: | /25 | /26 | /27 | /28 | /29 | /30 | /31 | /32 | 3rd Octet: | /17 | /18 | /19 | /20 | /21 | /22 | /23 | /24 | 2nd Octet: | /9 | /10 | /11 | /12 | /13 | /14 | /15 | /16 | 1st Octet: | /1 | /2 | /3 | /4 | /5 | /6 | /7 | /8 | # How It Works: 1. Find the CIDR prefix → Look up which row (which octet is the "magic octet") 2. Find Group Size from that row 3. Step through by Group Size starting at 0 until you PASS your target IP 4. Identify network boundaries: - Number BEFORE target = Network Address - Number AFTER target = Next Network - IP before next network = Broadcast Address - IP after network address = First Usable Host - IP before broadcast = Last Usable Host ### Example 1: /25 in Last Octet Problem: Find network for 203.0.113.100/25 /25 is in the "Last Octet" row Look across: Group Size = 128 # Step by 128s in last octet: 0, 128, 256 (exceeds 255, wrap to next octet) # Since 100 falls between 0 and 128: # Network Address: 203.0.113.0/25 Broadcast Address: 203.0.113.127/25 First Usable Host: 203.0.113.1/25 Last Usable Host: 203.0.113.126/25 Next Network: 203.0.113.128/25 Total Usable Hosts: 2^7 - 2 = 126 ### Example 2: /28 in Last Octet Problem: Find network for 192.168.1.100/28 /28 is in the "Last Octet" row Look across: Group Size = 16 # Step by 16s in last octet: 0, 16, 32, 48, 64, 80, 96, 112, 128, ... # Since 100 falls between 96 and 112: # Network Address: 192.168.1.96/28 Broadcast Address: 192.168.1.111/28 First Usable Host: 192.168.1.97/28 Last Usable Host: 192.168.1.110/28 Next Network: 192.168.1.112/28 Total Usable Hosts: 2^4 - 2 = 14 ### Example 3: /19 in Third Octet Problem: Find network for 10.4.77.188/19 /19 is in the "3rd Octet" row Look across: Group Size = 32 # Step by 32s in third octet (target = 77): 0, 32, 64, 96, 128, ... # Since 77 falls between 64 and 96: # Network Address: 10.4.64.0/19 Broadcast Address: 10.4.95.255/19 First Usable Host: 10.4.64.1/19 Last Usable Host: 10.4.95.254/19 Next Network: 10.4.96.0/19 # Subnet Mask: Every octet left of 3rd = 255, every octet right = 0 = 255.255.224.0 # Total Usable Hosts: 2^(32-19) - 2 = 2^13 - 2 = 8190 # ### Example 4: /10 in Second Octet Problem: Find network for 84.75.21.6/10 /10 is in the "2nd Octet" row Look across: Group Size = 64 # Step by 64s in second octet (target = 75): 0, 64, 128, 192, 256 (exceeds 255) # Since 75 falls between 64 and 128: # Network Address: 84.64.0.0/10 Broadcast Address: 84.127.255.255/10 First Usable Host: 84.64.0.1/10 Last Usable Host: 84.127.255.254/10 Next Network: 84.128.0.0/10 # Subnet Mask: = 255.192.0.0 # Total Usable Hosts: 2^(32-10) - 2 = 2^22 - 2 = 4,194,302 # --- ## Method 2: Binary Method (Alternative) When the cheatsheet isn't available, use the binary method. ### The Process 1. Convert IP to binary (only need to focus on the "magic octet") 2. Identify network bits vs host bits based on prefix length 3. Calculate group size from the number of host bits in the magic octet 4. Find subnet mask = 256 - Group Size 5. Divide and multiply to find network boundaries ### Example: 154.219.154.180/20 Step 1: Focus on the 3rd octet (where /20 lands) 154.219.154.180/20 The /20 means: /16 (all of 2nd octet) + /4 (4 bits of 3rd octet) 3rd octet is the "magic octet" # Step 2: Convert 154 to binary 154 = 1001 1010 # Step 3: Identify network vs host bits /20 means 4 bits are NETWORK bits in this octet 1001 | 1010 (first 4 bits are network, last 4 are host) ↑ network | host ↑ # Step 4: Calculate Group Size Host bits in magic octet = 4 Group Size = 2^4 = 16 Subnet Mask last part = 256 - 16 = 240 Full Subnet Mask = 255.255.240.0 # Step 5: Find network boundaries Divide: 154 ÷ 16 = 9 with remainder 10 Multiple remainder back: 9 × 16 = 144 Network Address: 154.219.144.0/20 Broadcast Address: 154.219.159.255/20 (144 + 16 - 1 = 159 is the broadcast 3rd octet) # Step 6: Calculate usable hosts Total host bits = 32 - 20 = 12 Usable hosts = 2^12 - 2 = 4,094 # --- ## Subnetting Class A, B, C Networks The process is identical for all classes; only the prefix length changes based on the requirement. ### Class A Example: 10.0.0.0/8 Problem: Divide 10.0.0.0/8 into 2000 subnets. What prefix length? Current: 10.0.0.0/8 = 2^24 = 16.7 million hosts # Need 2000 subnets: 2^10 = 1024 (not enough) 2^11 = 2048 (enough!) Must borrow 11 bits from host space: /8 + /11 = /19 # Network bits: 1111 1111 . 1111 1111 . 1110 0000 . 0000 0000 = 255.255.224.0 # Host bits remaining: 32 - 19 = 13 Usable hosts per subnet: 2^13 - 2 = 8,190 # Number of subnets: 2^11 = 2,048 # ### Class B Example: 172.16.0.0/16 Problem: Divide 172.16.0.0/16 into 50 subnets Need 50 subnets: 2^5 = 32 (not enough) 2^6 = 64 (enough!) Must borrow 6 bits from host space: /16 + /6 = /22 # Network bits: 1111 1111 . 1111 1111 . 1111 1100 . 0000 0000 = 255.255.252.0 # Host bits remaining: 32 - 22 = 10 Usable hosts per subnet: 2^10 - 2 = 1,022 # Number of subnets: 2^6 = 64 # ### Class C Example: 192.168.1.0/24 Problem: Divide 192.168.1.0/24 into 4 subnets Need 4 subnets: 2^2 = 4 (perfect!) Must borrow 2 bits from host space: /24 + /2 = /26 # Network bits: 1111 1111 . 1111 1111 . 1111 1111 . 1100 0000 = 255.255.255.192 # Host bits remaining: 32 - 26 = 6 Usable hosts per subnet: 2^6 - 2 = 62 # Number of subnets: 2^2 = 4 # The 4 subnets: 192.168.1.0/26 (0-63) 192.168.1.64/26 (64-127) 192.168.1.128/26 (128-191) 192.168.1.192/26 (192-255) # --- ## Variable-Length Subnet Masks (VLSM) ### Fixed-Length vs Variable-Length FLSM (Fixed-Length Subnet Masks): - All subnets have the SAME prefix length - Simple, but wasteful - Example: Divide /24 into four /26 subnets (all 62 hosts each) Problem: One subnet needs 110 hosts, another needs 2 hosts Solution: Would waste 60 IPs in the small subnet with FLSM VLSM (Variable-Length Subnet Masks): - Subnets can have DIFFERENT prefix lengths - Right-size each subnet to its needs - Much more efficient Solution: /25 for large subnet (126 hosts), /30 for small subnet (2 hosts) Result: No wasted IPs! ### VLSM Process Key Principle: Sort subnets by size (LARGEST first), then subnet sequentially 1. Sort requirements by host count (largest first) 2. Allocate the largest with appropriate prefix length 3. Use the next available address range for the next subnet 4. Repeat for all subnets ### VLSM Example: Multiple Sites Scenario: Split 192.168.1.0/24 for: - Tokyo LAN A: 110 hosts - Toronto LAN B: 45 hosts - Toronto LAN A: 29 hosts - Tokyo LAN B: 8 hosts - Point-to-Point Link: 2 hosts Step 1: Sort by Size (Largest First) 1\. Tokyo LAN A: 110 hosts → need /25 (126 usable) 2\. Toronto LAN B: 45 hosts → need /26 (62 usable) 3\. Toronto LAN A: 29 hosts → need /27 (30 usable) 4\. Tokyo LAN B: 8 hosts → need /28 (14 usable) 5\. Point-to-Point: 2 hosts → need /30 (2 usable) # Step 2: Allocate Tokyo LAN A (/25) Need: 110 hosts Use: /25 (128 total addresses, 126 usable) # Network: 192.168.1.0/25 Binary: 1000 0000 . 1010 1000 . 0000 0001 . 0 | 000 0000 Broadcast: 192.168.1.127/25 # First Usable: 192.168.1.1/25 Last Usable: 192.168.1.126/25 # Step 3: Allocate Toronto LAN B (/26) Need: 45 hosts Use: /26 (64 total addresses, 62 usable) # Next available after 192.168.1.127 = 192.168.1.128 # Network: 192.168.1.128/26 Binary: 1000 0000 . 1010 1000 . 0000 0001 . 10 | 00 0000 Broadcast: 192.168.1.191/26 # First Usable: 192.168.1.129/26 Last Usable: 192.168.1.190/26 Step 4: Allocate Toronto LAN A (/27) Need: 29 hosts Use: /27 (32 total addresses, 30 usable) # Next available after 192.168.1.191 = 192.168.1.192 # Network: 192.168.1.192/27 Binary: 1000 0000 . 1010 1000 . 0000 0001 . 110 | 0 0000 Broadcast: 192.168.1.223/27 # First Usable: 192.168.1.193/27 Last Usable: 192.168.1.222/27 # Step 5: Allocate Tokyo LAN B (/28) Need: 8 hosts Use: /28 (16 total addresses, 14 usable) # Next available after 192.168.1.223 = 192.168.1.224 # Network: 192.168.1.224/28 Binary: 1000 0000 . 1010 1000 . 0000 0001 . 1110 | 0000 Broadcast: 192.168.1.239/28 # First Usable: 192.168.1.225/28 Last Usable: 192.168.1.238/28 # Step 6: Allocate Point-to-Point (/30) Need: 2 hosts Use: /30 (4 total addresses, 2 usable) # Next available after 192.168.1.239 = 192.168.1.240 # Network: 192.168.1.240/30 Binary: 1000 0000 . 1010 1000 . 0000 0001 . 1111 00 | 00 Broadcast: 192.168.1.243/30 # First Usable: 192.168.1.241/30 (Router 1) Last Usable: 192.168.1.242/30 (Router 2) ### VLSM Summary Table ┌─────────────────┬──────────────────┬─────────────────┬──────────────┐ │ Location │ Host Requirement │ CIDR/Mask │ Usable Hosts │ ├─────────────────┼──────────────────┼─────────────────┼──────────────┤ │ Tokyo LAN A │ 110 │ 192.168.1.0/25 │ 126 │ │ Toronto LAN B │ 45 │ 192.168.1.128/26│ 62 │ │ Toronto LAN A │ 29 │ 192.168.1.192/27│ 30 │ │ Tokyo LAN B │ 8 │ 192.168.1.224/28│ 14 │ │ Point-to-Point │ 2 │ 192.168.1.240/30│ 2 │ └─────────────────┴──────────────────┴─────────────────┴──────────────┘ # Total 192.168.1.0/24 = 254 usable addresses After allocation = 126 + 62 + 30 + 14 + 2 = 234 used, 20 unused (vs FLSM would have wasted much more) ### Why VLSM Matters Without VLSM (FLSM with /26): 4 subnets of /26 = 62 hosts each = 248 total hosts Problem: Tokyo LAN B only needs 8 hosts → 54 wasted! With VLSM: Right-sized allocation = 234 used, 20 unused = efficient Tokyo LAN B gets /28 = 14 hosts = 6 wasted (much better) # --- ## Subnetting Checklist When given a subnet problem: ✅ Step 1: Identify the magic octet (which octet contains the CIDR boundary) ✅ Step 2: Extract Group Size from cheatsheet OR calculate from binary ✅ Step 3: Determine Subnet Mask (256 - Group Size for magic octet, other octets 255 or 0) ✅ Step 4: Step through by Group Size to find network boundaries ✅ Step 5: Identify: - Network Address - First Usable Host - Last Usable Host - Broadcast Address - Next Network ✅ Step 6: Calculate total usable hosts: 2^(32 - CIDR) - 2 ✅ Step 7 (VLSM only): Sort by size, allocate largest first, allocate sequentially --- ## Practice Problems ### Quick Practice Set 1 1\) 10.1.1.100/28 - Network Address? - Broadcast? - First/Last Usable? - Number of Subnets from /8? 2\) 172.16.50.200/22 - Network Address? - Broadcast? - Total Usable Hosts? 3\) 192.168.100.0/24 divided into /28 subnets - How many /28 subnets can you create? - List the first 3 subnet addresses ### Solutions 1\) 10.1.1.100/28 \- Network: 10.1.1.96/28 \- Broadcast: 10.1.1.111/28 \- First: 10.1.1.97, Last: 10.1.1.110 \- Subnets from /8: 2^20 = 1,048,576 # 2\) 172.16.50.200/22 \- Network: 172.16.48.0/22 (256-64=192, 50÷4=12r2, 12×4=48) \- Broadcast: 172.16.51.255/22 \- Total Hosts: 2^10 - 2 = 1,022 # 3\) 192.168.100.0/24 into /28 \- /28 group size = 16 \- 256 ÷ 16 = 16 subnets \- Subnets: 192.168.100.0/28, 192.168.100.16/28, 192.168.100.32/28, ... # --- ## Practice Resources For extra practice and mastery: - subnettingpractice.com ⭐ (recommended) - subnettingquestions.com - subnetting.org --- ## Key Takeaways for CCNA ✅ CIDR replaced classful addressing to enable flexible subnet sizes ✅ Usable hosts formula: 2^n - 2 (n = number of host bits) ✅ Magic octet is where the prefix length boundary falls (1st, 2nd, 3rd, or 4th octet) ✅ Cheatsheet method is fastest for exam: step by group size, identify boundaries ✅ Subnet mask = 256 - Group Size for magic octet (other octets: 255 left, 0 right) ✅ Larger CIDR number = smaller network (fewer addresses) ✅ Smaller CIDR number = larger network (more addresses) ✅ FLSM = all subnets same size (simple, may waste IPs) ✅ VLSM = variable subnet sizes (efficient, complex) ✅ VLSM key rule: Sort by size (largest first), allocate sequentially ✅ /30 networks are standard for point-to-point WAN links (2 usable IPs) ✅ Network address has all host bits = 0 ✅ Broadcast address has all host bits = 1 ✅ Usable host range = Network + 1 to Broadcast - 1 ✅ Next network = Broadcast + 1